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His work ruh al-Bayan ‘the Spirit of Elucidation’ is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author’s own ideas with those of his predecessors notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali. Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad :.
The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other. So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings seven depths of hidden depth.
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Commentaries dealing with the zahir ‘outward aspects’ of the text are called tafsir , and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta’wil ‘interpretation’ or ‘explanation’ , which involves taking the text back to its beginning.
Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. Reappropriation is the name of the hermeneutical style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity.
Their style or reinterpretation can sometimes be geared towards apologetics , with less reference to the Islamic scholarly tradition that contextualizes and systematizes the reading e. This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession. Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult.
Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African , Asian , and European languages.
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran.
In , translations in languages were known. In , George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in , and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall , use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you.
The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era. The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions , where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc.
It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels the articulation of the Quranic phonemes , the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation. In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for tajwid rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari [] and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.
The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like El Minshawy , Al-Hussary , Abdul Basit , Mustafa Ismail , were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation.
Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds tashkeel were introduced into the text of the Qur’an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca , Medina , Kufa , Basra and Damascus.
Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers , rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition Muhammad’s saying reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf meaning seven letters or modes.
This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran. The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination shaddah , assimilation and alternation.
Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi.
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts.
Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Naskh was in very widespread use. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India.
In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.
Folio from the “Blue” Quran. Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century. Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II r.
Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars : printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between and —initially, even on penalty of death. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.
A Quran was printed with this press in , reprinted in and in Saint Petersburg, and in in Kazan. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.
Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to preexisting sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from heretic , apocryphic and talmudic sources, such as The Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James. However the Bible was not translated into Arabic until after the completion of the Quran with other Judeo-Christian sources being translated even later.
The Tafsir’ilmi believe the Quran predicts scientific knowledge, relating the author to non-human origin. Critics argue, verses which allegedly explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology, evolution of the earth, and human life, contain fallacies and are unscientific. Despite calling itself a clear book, the Quranic language lacks clarity. Other criticisms point at the moral attitude asserted by the Quran.
Examples include the Sword Verse , which some interpret as promoting violence against “pagans”, and An-Nisa, 34 , which some view as excusing domestic violence.
Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth. The Quran attributes its relationship with former books the Torah and the Gospels to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God. In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form. Wadad Kadi , Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago , and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University , state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature’s diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Foundational Islamic religious text. This article is about the central religious text of Islam. For other uses, see Quran disambiguation. List English Ahmadiyya. I’jaz Inerrancy. Main article: History of the Quran. See also: Sanaa manuscript and Birmingham Quran manuscript.
Texts Foundations. Culture and society. Related topics. Main article: I’jaz. See also: Salah. Main articles: God in Islam , Prophets and messengers in Islam , Islamic attitudes towards science , Biblical and Quranic narratives , and Historical reliability of the Quran. Main article: Islamic eschatology. Main article: Tafsir. Main article: Esoteric interpretation of the Quran.
Main article: Quran translations. See also: List of translations of the Quran. See also: Tajwid. Main article: Islamic calligraphy. Main article: Criticism of the Quran.
See also: Biblical and Quranic narratives. Portals : Islam Book Middle Ages. The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The adjectives vary as well and include Koranic , Quranic and Qur’anic sometimes in lowercase. Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.
For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read.
Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann d. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne d.
To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in and in St. Petersburg cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. X, 95; Schnurrer, C. Bibliotheca Arabica, But if you look at it, you will notice that every fifth sentence or so simply doesn’t make sense Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Google Books. Retrieved 16 February Oxford English Dictionary Online ed.
Subscription or participating institution membership required. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 4 November The Koran Interpreted. ISBN It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it. Complete Idiot’s Guide to World Religions.
Islam: The Straight Path 4th ed. The Leaders Are Coming! WestBow Press. Williams; Michael R. Drew Vanguard Press. Chronology of Prophetic Events. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. Quran Arberry tr.
Tauris Publishers , p. The Words and Will of God. Princeton University Press. World Religions. Retrieved 10 July Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts On File. Indiana University Press. Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis. Islam: Religion, History and Civilization.
Handbook of Islamic Marketing. Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives. University of California Press. Archived from the original on 18 October Retrieved 31 August Quranic Sciences. ICAS press. The Qur’an in Islam: its impact and influence on the life of muslims. Zahra Publ. Montgomery Watt Bell’s introduction to the Qur’an. Holt, Ann K. Lambton and Bernard Lewis The Cambridge history of Islam Reprint.
Cambridge Univ. Ulum al-Qur’an : an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an Repr. Islamic Foundation. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 10 January Journal of Quranic Studies. Global Journal Al-Thaqafah.
ISSN The Blackwell companion to the Qur’an 2a reimpr. For the history of compilation see “Introduction,” by Tamara Sonn , pp. For literary structure, see “Language,” by Mustansir Mir, p. For recitation, see “Recitation,” by Anna M.
Gade pp. Peters , pp. The Qur’an: an Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. For eschatology, see “Eschatology,” by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see “Cyberspace and the Qur’an,” by Andrew Rippin , pp.
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